As a design process, the intent of gamification is to augment or alter existing real-world processes using insights from the game design research literature so that users will experience the revised process as more game-like (Landers et al., 2018). In an education setting, it is hoped the use of game design elements via the process of gamification will improve user experience and engagement, and lead to improved learning outcomes (Landers, 2014; van Gaalen et al., 2021) through attitudinal, motivational, and/or behavioural effects (Landers et al., 2018).

As such, gamification is influenced by self-determination theory, which asserts that users are more likely to pursue activities that yield intrinsic and extrinsic rewards (Al-Rayes et al., 2022), and the notion that intrinsic motivation is strongest when an activity addresses the basic psychological need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan et al., 2006).

Landers et al. (2018) described a theoretical model that provides a conceptual framework for considering the interrelated causal relationships of game elements, targeted outcomes, individual psychological states and behaviours, and personal and situational contexts – see Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Theoretical causal relationships between constructs in gamification science.

Note. Adapted from “Gamification science, its history and future: Definitions and a research agenda,” by Landers, R. N., Auer, E. M., Collmus, A. B., & Armstrong, M. B., 2018, Simulation & Gaming, 49(3), 315-337 (https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878118774385)

In this model, game elements induce both psychological and behavioural changes, which causally lead to targeted outcomes via the moderating influence of person and situational variables. An example provided by Landers et al. (2018) is the use of a leader board (predictor) improving employer motivation to attend to training materials (psychological mediator), which then leads to improved effort (behavioural mediator), which in turn improves learning (criterion).

Typical elements applied in gamified designs are points, badges (prizes) and leader boards (R. N. Landers et al., 2019; van Gaalen et al., 2021) In the setting of gamified healthcare applications Al-Rayes et al. (2022) also included levels, feedback and challenges. Numerous game elements have been proposed to improve the learning experience through gamification, (e.g. Marczewski, 2017) resulting in inconsistent terminology that lacks consensus (van Gaalen et al., 2021). To deal with this complexity and to help identify causal relations, frameworks have been applied that group game elements into nine categories according to attribute: action language, assessment, conflict/challenge, control, environment, game fiction, human interaction, immersion and rule/goals (Bedwell et al., 2012; Landers, 2014). Rather than try to tease out causal relationships between individual game elements where they exist together, the use of categories of elements with similar attributes may help to provide some clarity for researchers (van Gaalen et al., 2021).

Game elements are frequently used as extrinsic motivators, whereby rewards (e.g. points, badges, leader boards, prizes) are offered to the user in exchange for engaging in an activity (Gray et al., 2019). This can produce a powerful short, or even medium-term boost to motivation; however, long-term use of purely extrinsic motivators appears to be less effective over time (Gray et al., 2019). Given the initial positive impact of extrinsic motivators, they may be more useful when used in combination with elements and activities that also drive intrinsic motivation (Gray et al., 2019; Ryan et al., 2006).

Intrinsic motivation is thought to be enhanced by features such as challenge, fantasy, and curiosity (Habgood & Ainsworth, 2011; Malone, 1981). According to Habgood et al. (2011) intrinsically integrated games deliver learning material through elements of the game that are most fun to play, and that embody the learning material within the structure of the game and the player’s interaction with it. Even though Habgood et al. (2011) were dealing with serious games, it is evident that building intrinsic motivation into gamified content will provides additional challenges and opportunities for the education designer over and above simply deploying extrinsically motivating elements like points, badges and leader boards (Gray et al., 2019).